Business

The question of what makes up a learning organisation has continued to raise debate among different scholars and writers. Peter Senge and Donald Schon are the major key thinkers who have contributed largely to the understanding of the term a learning organisation. Organizations and most consultants are today recognizing and appreciating the commercial impact of organisational learning as well as the idea of a learning organization with the latter forming a central point in the debate. Different writers have tried to come up with ideal forms or templates which can be emulated by real organisations with an aim of instituting learning in organisations. In this case, learning organisation can be viewed as an ideal concept through which organisations are expected to evolve so as to have the capacity to respond to the external and internal pressures they are encountered with (Garvin, 2000). Collective and individual learning are thus key issues for an organisation to be termed as a learning organisation. However, this kind of definition of a learning organisation is more theoretical than practical and it becomes difficult to point out examples in the real life situations. This is because it is founded on an ideal notion of learning organisation hence it lacks relevant requirements in the dynamic and turbulent environment in which businesses operates in. Also, focusing on the formulation of a template of a learning organisation presenting this concept as being commercially attractive has led to tremendous under powering of learning organisation framework as being only theoretical (Hughes  Tight, 1998).

A learning organisation definitions, theories and characteristics
The term learning was first used (in organisational context) in the 1980s to refer to organisations that were experimenting with different and new ways in carrying out their businesses with an aim of surviving in the then turbulent markets that were highly competitive (Mason, n. d). Different definitions have so far been formulated by individuals in regard to this concept with no consensus on what describes it. A learning organisation(s) is defined as an organisation whereby employees or individuals continually expand or increase their capability of coming up with results that they desire, an institution where the expansive and new thinking patterns are continually nurtured, an entity where the collective aspirations of employees is set free, and an entity where individuals engage in continued learning so as to perceive the whole organisation together (Easterby-Smith et al, 1999). A learning organisation is also defined as a vision of what might be possible. In this case, a learning organisation is not only created by just training employees but it occurs as a result of organisations wide learning. A learning organisation as such facilitates and ensures learning for all its employees and also transforms itself continually. A learning organisation has also been defined as an organisation which is characterised by a process of fulltotal involvement of employees undertaken collectively and collaboratively with an aim of instituting change towards shared principles in an entity (Malhotra, 1996).
Different theorists concentrating on the issue of learning organisations have drawn most of their concepts from the concept of organisational learning. However, little traffic is observed in reverse direction.

Organisational learning and learning organisation concerns are to some extent different hence their literatures have taken divergent tracks. Organisational learning literature concentrates more on analysis of process and detached collection that involves the collective and individual learning within an organisation while literature on learning organisation is action oriented and concentrates more on specific evaluative and diagnostic methodological tools that are used in identifying, evaluating and promoting the learning processes quality within an organisation (Marquandt  Reynolds, 1993). Organisational learning can thus be described as process and activity via which organisations finally acquire or attain a learning organisation ideal status. Two of the most influential thinkers in the field of learning organisation and who have contributed largely to this concept are Donald Schon and Peter Senge. Donald looks or views organisations as learning systems while Senge views or treats entities as learning organisations firmly built on dialogue and systematic thinking. To better understand the learning organisation concept, it is essential to understand its origin and the different theories that have been put forth by these two major thinkers in this field (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, Roth  Smith, 1999).

Donald Schon emerged or came up with the idea or theory of a learning society from which the notion of learning organisation was derived. Donald came up with a theoretical framework that linked the understanding or the experience of staying in an environment or situation that is dynamic with the desire and need to learn. Donald argued that losing a stable state in a society necessitates all institutions contained therein as well as the society itself to undergo continuous transformation processes (Watkins  Marsick, 1993). He argued that there are not new stable states that tend to endure for a lifetime of individuals of a society or its institutions. As such, individuals have to continually learn to understand, influence, guide and even manage the transformation brought about by the dynamism in the society and institutions. Donald added that individuals have to become adept at learning. As such, individuals have to be able not only in transforming the institutions they are in as a result of changing requirements and environment or situations but they must also be able to invent and also develop these institutions to become learning systems. By this, Donald meant that the learning systems should be able to bring about or cause their continuous transformations (Argyris  Schn, 1996).

One of the greatest innovations by Donald Schon was the explorations of how far governments, social movements and companies or organisations were learning systems and also how they could be improved. Donald suggested that becoming a learning system was a necessity, an inductive and a groping process with no adequate basis of theory. According to Donald, a business firm was one of the most outstanding examples denoting a learning system. He examined how organisations were moving from their concentrations on single products and services towards integrations based on business systems. He argued that most of the companies or organisations were not having a stable base in particular systems or products technologies build around them. Together with Chris Argyris, Donald developed several vital concepts relating to organisational learning built around double and single loop learning and feedback. They categorised organisational learning into three the single loop, the double loop and the deutero-learning. These three categories characterise a learning organisation according to Donald and Chris (Argyris  Schn, 1996).

The single loop learning in organisation occurs in cases where errors after detection are then corrected with no changes on present goals and policies of an organisation. This form of learning is equivalent to activities which tend to add the base of knowledge in an organisation or even its specific routines or competencies without any changes in the fundamental nature of the activities of an organisation. Senge has termed this form of learning as being more adaptive while other writers like Mason views it as being non strategic with Fiol  Lyles terming it as lower level form of learning (Kerka, 1995). Double loop form of learning occurs when after detection of errors and their correction, an organisation undertakes a step further of questioning the existing norms as well as implementing modifications on such norms, policies, procedures and its objectives.
This form of knowledge entails altering the knowledge base of an organisation or even its routines and specific competencies. Senge terms this form of learning as being generative or a form of learning that leads to the expansion of the capabilities of an organisation (Senge, et al, 2000). Fiol and Lyles on the other hand terms it as high level learning while Mason views it as strategic learning.  Strategic learning in this case refers to the process through which an entity tries to make sense of its situations or the environment it operates in which in turn broadens its objectives that it can go after given a defined resources as well as actions while trying to achieve the objectives. Deutero-learning is the third characteristic of learning derived by Donald and Chris. This form of leaning occurs when entities learn on means of carrying out the above two forms of leaning. Single and double loop learning cannot happen if an entity is not aware that there must be occurrence of learning. Ignorance awareness motivates entities to learn which entails identifying the styles of learning as well as the structures and processes that are needed to promote learning (Tsang, 1997).

Peter Senge is another instrumental and influential thinker in the concept of learning organisation. Senge started by exploring the learning organisation art and practice. In his book the fifth discipline published in the year 1990, Senge identified two concepts the learning system (systematic thinking) and dialogue as being vital components for the learning organisation (Senge, et al, 2000). Systematic thinking forms the cornerstone of his approach to learning organisation. Systematic thinking refers to a discipline that combines or brings together other disciplines and infuses them to make a coherent body of practice and theory. The ability of systems theory to address and comprehend the whole organisation as well as look at the interrelationship that exists between different parts of an organisation provides Senge with a mode of integrating disciplines as well as an incentive to do so (Senge, et al, 2000). Basically, the systems theory is concerned with the connections and the entire organisation. As such, it allows individuals to see beyond the very immediate concepts as well as appreciate the significance or impacts of any actions they may take upon other people and vice versa. Systems theory tries to achieve a holistic understanding of an institution. The systems theory building blocks are relatively very simple but they have the capability of building into a sophisticated model in organisations (Smith, 2001). Peter Senge argued that the major problems that have been addressed by most writers and even carried out during management practises is that simple frameworks are most often applied to complex systems. He argues that adding the two points ensures that an organisation is able to go beyond the focussing on just one part but rather the whole as well as to appreciate businesses as being comprised of dynamic processes. This argument is based on the notion that appreciating systems leads to better and appropriate actions being taken. According to Senge, systematic thinking helps individuals realise the importance of mechanisms of feedback in an organisation (Senge, et al, 2000).

Dialogue is another concept deemed essential for a learning organisation by Peter, especially in issues relating to team learning. Conversation or dialogue refers to the process whereby two individuals communicate and understand one another. This process is inherently risky because it leads to the questioning of ones assumptions and beliefs. According to Gadamer (1979), one of the characteristics of true conversation is opening up of oneself to another person, fully and truly accepting the other persons view point as being worthy of being considered and lastly getting inside the other person to ensure that one understands not only the person he is conversing with but also the content of what such a person is saying (Gadamer, 1979). While doing so, one has to grasp the opinion of the other person so that an agreement can be reached. Senge argues that team learning is built upon the capacity of team members to do away with assumptions and begin genuine thinking together. He argues that for a shared vision to be build as well as mental model development of the vision, dialogue must be present. Dialogue has the capacity of enriching the corporate activity although it has significant risks to an organisation. It can improve the corporate activity by questioning and exploration of some inherent and predetermined goals and purposes (Pieters  Young, 1999).

Characteristics of a learning organisation have been divided into five categories based on Senges and Donalds theories of learning organisation. These categories include self mastery (individuals), mental models (individuals), shared vision (groups), team learning (group) and lastly systems thinking (group). Self mastery is the first category or characteristic of a learning organisation and it is carried out by individuals within an organisation (Cohen  Prusak, 2001). It refers to the ability of an individual to openly and honestly view reality as it truly exists and also to clarify his personal vision. It is enhanced through positive reinforcement from managers, sharing of experiences, increased interaction time, balancing work and non work time and increased emphasis on feedback (Hayes, Wheelwright  Clark, 1988). Self mastery leads to an improvement in commitment to ones work as well as the organisation, reduces rationalisation of events that are negative, enables a person to face his limitations and helps one to deal with change more effectively. Mental models entail the capability of comparing perceptions with personal vision or reality and reconciling these two to form a coherent understanding. This is enhanced through reflective openness, learning time, inquiry habits, adaptabilityflexibility and forgiving oneself. It is evidence when there is less application of defensive work routines, decreased reflexivity that may cause patterns of behaviour that are dysfunctional and decreased avoidance of situations that are difficult (Gilley  Maybunich, 2000).

Shared vision entails the ability of individuals in a group to have one shared picture of a future that is mutually desired. It is enhanced via trust, participative openness, dissemination habit, empathy and cooperation. This leads to commitment and not compliance, helps in quicker adaptability to changes, increases group trusts and leads to communication flows that are more effective (Bolman  Deal, 2003). Team learning is also another characteristic of a learning organisation. This occurs when a group is able to do away with personal assumptions regarding to one another and instead engage in more dialogue and less discussion. This is achieved through consensus building, participative openness, support not blame, creative thinking, bottom-up and top-down communication. Results of team learning include increased collective learning, increased cohesiveness, improved creativity and group self awareness (Sugarman, 1996). The last characteristic is systems thinking which entails having the ability to view different interrelationships instead of linear effect-cause, the capacity to appreciate different consequences of actions and think in context on different system parts. It is built upon continued practise of self mastery, team learning emphasis, shared vision possession and possession of mental models that are consistent. System thinking leads to long-term changes and improvement in an organisation, reduced conflicts, revolutionary rather than evolutionary change and continuous group learning within an entity (Pedler, Burgoyne  Boydell, 1996).

With increasing globalisation, technological advancement and dynamism as well as rising competition, learning in organisations has become a paramount and essential tool of creating a sustainable competitive advantage. A learning organisation whereby the employees as well as the organisation continually look for ways to gain more knowledge and to create a knowledge base that is essential in helping it adapt more easily to future needs. Any organisation planning to succeed in the 21st centurys business world must endeavour to enhance learning in all its systems.