Furthermore, this study theory development sought, though the literature review sought and understanding of the brand and sports product unity, depth of appeal, width of ideas and the possible intuition that the celebrity endorsers impact on the customers purchase. Therefore, this study developed from exploration of the literature, explanation of the facts and testing of the outcomes (Saunders et al. 2007). From the available theories in the literature review regarding purchase of sportswear, a fresh theory will evolve to confirm the certainty and predictability that many male customers will prefer to purchase celebrity endorsed sportswear products.
3.2 Study design
This study embraces two major research paradigms, the empirical cycle and the design cycles. The empirical cycles conforms to the universal stages of research aims and objectives, study design, primary and secondary data collection, data analysis and presentation (Saunders et al. 2007). The Design cycle on the other hand conforms to the universal stages of study goals, limits and delimits applications of various methods, choice of various designs and presentation. Thus, this study hypothesis will follow a diagnostic, constructive and application approach as show below.
Source Saunders et al. 2007.
From this general view, it is apparent that these study cycles are trajectory. While in the process of exploring the study theories, new variables were realized (Saunders et al. 2007). These outcomes test the study designs such as the development of the questionnaire from the empirical literature outcomes from a non-biased angle. The outcome of the theory of the cycles forms and empirical background to assess the effects of celebrity endorsement on purchase of sportswear.
As outlined earlier, the aim of this study is to investigate the degree to which the sports celebrity endorser influences the male purchase decision and brand choice in the Irish sportswear market. Therefore, this approach is expected to describe male customers attitude and predictability to purchase celebrity endorsed sportswear and brands. To a wider extend this methodology should enable the researcher establish how the buyers make a judgement to purchase. Additionally this methodology could be useful in enabling the sellers or major sports brands on how to position their promotional strategies as well as how to select their celebrity endorsers.
The exploratory stage of this research dwelt on the literature review as the theory basis and the application for the empirical basis. This methodology is validated for accuracy, consistency, fitness, sensitivity and reliability. The literature review give a good starting point for understanding the celebrity case studies and their impacts on purchases following endorsement contracts. When testing the hypothesis, the feedbacks from the interviews come in handy to validate the empirical nature of the study (Saunders et al. 2007).
The theoretical aspects of this study defines how the study questions resolve the investigation of the degree to which the sports celebrity endorser influences the male purchase decision and brand choice in the Irish sportswear market. Much as the study would like to validate give hypothetical positions, the outcome will however be sensitive to possible suggestions to adopt by the sellers of major sports brands. This study scope is nevertheless, delimited by time and resources to cover in-depth impact of the celebrity endorsement in terms of actual sales and profits. To that extent, the following is a diagrammatic presentation of the projections and convergence of this study design stages (Saunders et al. 2007). Source (Saunders et al. 2007).
3.3 The Research Onion Design
Saunders et al (2007) came up with the research methodology called research onion as elaborated below.
As shown above, the research philosophy layer is composed of the following approaches positivism, interpretivism, realism, objectivism, subjectivism, pragmatism, functionalism, radical humanist and radical structuralism. The Research approaches layer is composed of both the inductive and deductive methods. The research strategies layer of this study is composed of the experiments, case studies, grounded theory, surveys, ethnography and actions. The time zone horizons are composed of the cross-sectional and longitudinal methods. The research choices compose of single methods, mixed methods and multiple methods. Finally, the data collection methods are composed of the sampling methods, secondary data, physical observations, questionnaires and interviews (Saunders et al. 2007). Since not all these approaches were applicable, this study adopts a top to down peel of the onion while justifying every approach and decisions.
3.4 Research Philosophy
This research philosophy proposed various ways in which data are collected and analyzed, given that this study falls under social science of marketing. A clearer understanding of the study subject commences from the customers purchasing views from and interpretation of the sellers application of celebrity endorsers. This approach posits that the ideas will vary while the interpretations will converge and diverge (Saunders et al. 2007). Subsequently, the ontology of this study dwells on the real nature of the sportswear products and brands. Therefore, the celebrity endorsement qualifies the subject as a social science. The epistemology of this study dwells on the wide knowledge that celebrity endorsement can actually increase the purchasing of the sportswear and related products and brands. Therefore, the epistemology of this study is establish if the social nature of purchase can be studied as a natural science using validity, accuracy, sensitivity and reliability approaches (Saunders et al. 2007, p. 108). The epistemology of this study guides the methodology to predict the customer behaviour in the Irish sportswear market.
The research positivism entails the use of data collection to support the general social behaviour following a celebrity endorsement. Thus, the survey technique is preferred with a questionnaire attached at the appendix I. The survey is also be used to test the hypothesis of this study. The positivist approach is most applicable to capture the wider sample population for fair deduction. The application of deduction implies that the literature review has preceded the survey in a truthful and verifiable manner (Saunders et al. 2007, p. 108).
This study also adopts critical realism that faces the research. This position is supported by the possibility that celebrity endorsement could improve the purchase of sportswear whether there is empirical evidence on not. The real power of the celebrity endorsement is appreciated. Thus, critical realism seeks to separate the actual attitudinal influence from the real purchase or expenditures in the sportswear (Saunders et al. 2007). This study seeks to interpret the possibility that negative celebrity endorser image could negatively impact on the purchase of the endorsed products. This interpretation as mentioned earlier is important for the seller of the sportswear brands to shift endorsement or fortify the process using multiple endorsers (Saunders et al. 2007). This study seeks to understand the objectivism of using celebrity endorsers as a modern promotional and marketing strategy. Whether all endorsement has been successful is a cut off point form the seller to ponder (Saunders et al. 2007).
This study considers the subjectivism of the Irish buyers to purchase certain sportswear following endorsement by their favourite sports personalities. Whether the subjectivism is personal or peer influences is however out of scope of this study (Saunders et al. 2007). This study considers the pragmatism (Saunders et al. 2007) of the celebrity endorsement process in the Irish market. Given that most celebrity endorsers are coming out of the Irish region, the true impact and practice is investigated. However the sales and profits pragmatics are a limitation of this study. Nevertheless, the expenditure pragmatism is sampled. This study is inclusive of the functionalism of the marketing process with the celebrity endorsement taking lead role in the promotion.
This study also considers the radical humanist (Saunders et al. 2007). capabilities that major sport celebrity personalities like Michael Jordan, David Beckham among others have had in their various seasons of endorsements. The fluctuations in the purchase define the radical humanist for example in the case of David Beckham. This study considers the radical structuralist (Saunders et al. 2007), that celebrity endorsement has on the market and sportswear branding structures. Some brands like Nike have been carefully structures from the celebrity endorsement by Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods and others. Finally, under the research philosophy, this study considers that the collective interpretive approach is applicable to validate the study hypothesis after a detailed quantitative data collection and analysis.
3.5 Research Approach
This study adopts both the inductive and deductive approaches (Saunders et al. 2007). The inductive reasoning is justified because the purchase observations are measurable following the celebrity endorsement. Thereafter a wider conclusions and theoretical framework is plausible. This study approach also justifies the use of deductive reasoning. The matter posed by wrong celebrity endorsement and negative image of the celebrity endorsers to lead to decline in purchases or association is purely deductive in nature. Overall, the inductive research seemed most appropriate in this study because the researcher gathers a wider understanding of the attitudes and influences of purchase of sportswear in the Irish market. The inductive approach is also most appropriate because the research background is clearer to gauge (Saunders et al. 2007).
The use of the questionnaire to gather data posits that the inductive approach takes higher preference to the deductive approach (Saunders et al. 2007). Due to the flexibility of the inductive approach, the researcher is able to manoeuvre the process while being part of the whole process. Finally, the fact that the inductive approach lessens the tendency to generalize the outcome as compared to the deductive approach makes it even more appropriate (Saunders et al. 2007). This study, by applying the triangulation method succeeds in interpreting the literature review, the case study and the questionnaire outcome (Breitmayer Knafl 1991).
3.6 Research Strategy
This study adopted an elaborate data collection strategy, which from the exploration to the analysis and testing stage (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604)..
3.6.1 Exploration Phase
In Chapter 2, this study reviewed literature about the subject under study with the guidance of the study objectives. The use of the literature review at the exploration stage is justified because the researcher gains a social science setting of the marketing attitudes and drives for the sportswear in the Irish market. Thereafter the theories of push and pull towards purchase with the celebrity endorser as the stimulus get clarity. Second, the application of the literature review is justified because the researcher is able to breakdown the complex nature of the subject under smaller subtitles and sections within a very short time (Armitage Keeble-Ramsay 2009, p.1-36). Third, the use of literature review is justified because the researcher can access past studies in the area of marketing of sportswear from a celebrity endorsement angle.
After this detailed exploration stage, the literature is explained with a critical review with brief consideration of celebrity cases such as David Beckham, Tiger Woods, Michael Jordan and others. At the explanation stage, the literature review is effective in guiding the study questions. This exploration stage established that many studies completed in the subject globally, but very few covered the Irish market in particular. The use of case studies, according to Noor (2008, p. 1602-1604) will enable the investigation of the celebrity endorser push and pull to purchase phenomenon from a realist view especially since the limits of the phenomenon and case are blurred. The use of case study is also justified because the phenomenon of celebrity endorser to push and driver purchases is a practical matter. Therefore, the nature of the specific purchase is an occurrence that needs a case study (Hartley 1994). The use of the case study is also justified because of the central tendency of the customers to associate with brands and products that are endorsed by the celebrities. This has implications of grounded theory (Dick 2000) that more purchase is evitable with celebrity endorsement. Therefore, the case study will attempt to understand how the customers make specific decisions, with justifications, how they proceed with the decisions and the outcome (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604).
3.6.2 The Testing Phase
The importance of the testing stage is to validate whether the above-mentioned triangulation approach is effective in highlighting the issues of the subject study. The testing stage will also form a future grounded theory to be adopted by the stakeholders in the sportswear and similar branded products to market in the Irish region. The most applicable strategies in this subject are the action research, the experiments, surveys, and the case studies (Saunders et al. 2007).
The first research strategy in this study is the action research. According to this paper, both the theory application and development are justifiable, because the attitudes and influences of the public to purchase following celebrity endorsement are social matters whose impacts are valuable (Saunders et al. 2007). On the matter of theory development, the study breaks down the celebrity endorsement phenomenon in connection to the application in the marketing of sportswear. Action research will also call for the researcher to give their observations as well as input of experiences. However, this posses some bias. Hence, the strategy of action research does not take priority in this study.
The second research strategy is experiment, which is most applicable for the case study (Saunders et al. 2007). This strategy is justifiable in understanding the how celebrity endorsement improves the purchases of sportswear and why. Thus, the case study acts as the actual events. However, the experiments were partly discriminated due to their boundary requirements (Saunders et al. 2007). The experiment were however partly applicable owing to the sportswear and brand organizations such as Nike, Puma, Adidas, and others input on their experiences of purchases following their engagement of celebrity endorsers.
The third research strategy is the surveys, which offer contemporary evidence on the marketing issue under study (Saunders et al. 2007). The surveys are very categorical on whom the celebrities are what products they endorse where they endorse the products how they endorse the products how many product they endorse at a time and how much payment they receive for each product endorsement. The surveys are composed of both open and closed ended questions. The surveys also include a range of questionnaire setting techniques including variance scales, multiple options for feedback and attitudinal scales. The surveys adhered to ethical concerns in research such as confidentiality and truthfulness among other key issues (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604).
The fourth research strategy is the case study of the celebrities and their endorsement impact. This strategy is justified because the celebrities have a perceived influence in the marketing of the sportswear. Even though this strategy implicates the researcher in bias when it come to validity and reliability, the use of case study is justifies in the clarity of facts that are helpful in the testing stage of this study (Noor, 2008, p. 1602-1604).
3.7 Research Choice
This study adopts a multiple method that involves literature review, case study and interviews, interpreted via triangulation for validity, accuracy, sensitivity and reliability (Breitmayer Knafl 1991). The research choice elaboration is below
Completed Conduct of Research Choice
SHAPE MERGEFORMAT Source Breitmayer Knafl 1991
3.8 Research Horizons
The two major aspects of time horizons that impact on this study are the cross-sectional and horizontal horizons (Saunders et al. 2007). The horizontal horizon is quite challenging because most of the marketing and brands organizations are unlikely to offer some information they deem confidential and unsafe in the hands of their competitors. Therefore, the cross-sectional horizon is the most appropriate because the various companies such as Nike, Adidas, Puma, and others case are viewed from the secondary and case study methods.
3.9 Data Reliability and Validity
The three research approaches, namely case study, literature review and interviews, on the own have weaknesses in reliability and validity (Saunders et al. 2007).This justifies the multiple method approach in this study to reduce the error posed by their validity and reliability. The case study method has weaknesses in study reliability, internal validity, external validity and constructs validity. This posse a research dilemma on the best method to approve the outcome of case study. Overall, Noor (2008, p. 1602-1604), outlines a conventional way of trusting the various research approached such as case study, literature review and surveys.
3.9.1 Study Reliability
This study gained reliability of the case studies and literature sources because the celebrity endorsement events are recorded in various academic databases that are accessible to the researcher and other interested verifiers. The case studies and developed following an approved procedure such as use of questionnaire and peer reviews (Saunders et al. 2007).The literature review on the other hand was peer reviewed therefore, this study gained reliability.
3.9.2 Construct validity
Otherwise called triangulation, this study gained construct validity because of the application of the case study, literature review and surveys as the foundation of the multiple sources to cover for the limits of each source. This study also adopted the triangulation method to provide synergy for the results (Saunders et al. 2007).The primary sources of information were the application of the questionnaire to the customers of sportswear in the Irish market. The data coding was for confidentiality and for future traceability. At least two contributors verified the outcomes from the case studies. The literature-reviewed sources are also traceable by credible web link.
3.9.2 Internal Validity
Internal validity is achieved by matching the celebrity endorsement explanations with the tested outcomes. However, the internal validity of this study guards against perception errors that the celebrity endorsements were effective in boosting purchase of products against halo effects that respondents had prior feedback against memory recall that respondents could not get the past fact rights and against reflexivity, that the respondents gave convenient feedback to the researcher (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604).
3.9.4 External validity
The outcomes from this study require external validity. Since most of the celebrity endorsements take place in most first world nations, the outcomes will be externally valid when they show similar trends to other nations. Therefore, the gaps arising in the external validity fill by various case studies as elaborated in the research process. The main aim of external validity is to predict a trend in celebrity endorsement and familiar literature review as well as to outline any major differences in the theories (Noor 2008, p. 1602-1604).
3.10 Data collection and analysis process
This study adopted a multi-method approach in data collection. Whereas there was plenty of qualitative information within the scope of this study, the quantitative data was equally useful for the sake of current findings. The questionnaire was the preferred instrument of collecting the quantitative data with the researcher getting a first hand opportunity to test the variables in the study questions (Saunders et al. 2007). The following is the process in the questionnaire development.
Source (Saunders et al. 2007).
The following diagram represents the process of data collection in this study.
Source (Saunders et al. 2007).
This study adopts a statistical analysis method in social science. The SPSS software is used for that matter because it has the capability of performing multivariate, bivariate and monovariate data analysis. This has implications that the various relationships between the study variable can be assessed for either single of multiple patterns, trends and models (Saunders et al. 2007)
3.11 Ethical Issues in this research
The researcher had an obligation of building trust with the respondents. The researcher had the ethical obligation of truthfulness, by informing the respondents of the actual purpose of the research and reporting the outcome as accurate as possible. The respondents had the ethical obligations of reporting as truthfully as possible to the researcher without withholding information in most cases. The researcher had an ethical obligation of observing and interpreting the outcomes in a valid manner. The researcher has an ethical obligation of avoiding personal bias to influence the outcome of the study. The researchers role is thus exclusive to observing the research occurrences without unnecessary interjections (Saunders et al. 2007).
3.12 Conclusion of chapter
This chapter has outlined the research process, strategy and design. Since there are many celebrity endorsement theories as established by the literature review, the study adopted an exploratory and explanatory approach. This study also adopted a positivist approach to triangulate the literature review, case study and surveys for an interpretivistic view. Overall, this study was more inclined to inductive than deductive approach because of the availability of various literatures in the field. There are potential limitations of this study in the area of reliability and validity. However, these are reduced by use of appropriate research strategies and processes. Ethical issues affecting this study process are highlighted with proper mitigation in place whenever a breakdown occurs.
References
Armitage, A. Keeble-Ramsay, D. 2009. The Rapid Structured Literature Review
as a Research Strategy, US-China Education Review, vol 6, no. 4, pp. 1-36. Online Available at HYPERLINK httpwww.teacher.org.cndocucedu200904ucedu20090403.pdf httpwww.teacher.org.cndocucedu200904ucedu20090403.pdf.
Accessed on 4th December 2009
Breitmayer, B.J. Knafl, K.A., 1991. Triangulation in Qualitative Research Issues
of Conceptual Clarity and Purpose in Qualitative Research In J. M. Morse (Ed.), A Contemporary Dialogue, (pp.226-239) Newbury Park,CA Sage Cited in HYPERLINK httpwww.igi-global.comdownloadsexcerpts8160.pdf httpwww.igi-global.comdownloadsexcerpts8160.pdf
Accessed on 4th December 2009
Dick, B. 2005. Grounded Theory A Thumbnail Sketch, Research Papers in Action
Research, Available at HYPERLINK httpwww.scu.edu.auschoolsgcmararpgrounded.html httpwww.scu.edu.auschoolsgcmararpgrounded.html
Accessed on 3rd December 2009
Noor, K.B.M. 2008. Case Study A strategic Research Methodology. Science
Publications. American Journal of Applied Sciences. Vol. 5, Issue 11,
pp. 1602-1604. Available at HYPERLINK httpwww.scipub.orgfulltextajasajas5111602-1604.pdf httpwww.scipub.orgfulltextajasajas5111602-1604.pdf. Accessed on 4th December 2009.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. 2007. Research Methods for Business
Students. 4th ed. London Prentice Hall.
Appendix I
Questionnaire to the customers
1.) Age of respondent (Tick only one option)
a 18-24
b 25-35
c 36-45
d 46-55
e Over 56 years
2.) The male sport celebrity endorser influences the male customers purchase decision and choice in Irish sportswear market. (Tick only one option)
a Strongly Agree
b Agree
c Uncertain
d Disagree
e Strongly Disagree
2.) What Criteria is used to select a male celebrity endorser (Tick only one option)
a Credibility
b Charisma
c Expertise
d Reputation
e Personal Identity
f Type of sport
g Looks
f Market Savvy
g Visibility
3.) What influence does male sports celebrity have on the purchasing decisions (Tick only one option)
a Popularity and publicity of brands
b Increased Sales and profits
c Improved product ratings and preferences
d Bad publicity and behaviour leads to drop in brand preferences
e Improve on product preference and public attention.
f Define a consumption culture
g Association with product characteristics and benefits
4.) As a male customer, how frequent to you purchase sportswear endorsed by male sports celebrities (Tick only one option)
a Always
b Fairly Often
c Occasionally
d Seldom
e Never
5.) What impression do the brands endorsed by the celebrity create in your mind (Tick only one option)
a Permanent (more than 6 months)
b Semi permanent (Lasting 1-6 months)
c Temporary (Less than 1 month)
6.) Which media is often passes advertisement messages for the brands endorsed by male sports celebrity (Tick only one option)
a Television
b Radio
c Internet
d Newspaper
7.) Which male sport celebrity endorser have you associated with the products or brands they promoted (Tick only one option)
a Michael Jordan- (Basketball)
b David Beckham- (Footballer)
c Mike Tyson- (Boxer)
d Tiger Woods- (Golfer)
e Adrian Mutu- (Footballer)
f Dale Earnhardt- (Racing Driver)
g Michael Phelp- (Swimmer)
h Kobe Bryant- (Basketball)
i John Daly- (Golfer)
j Louis Armstrong- (Cyclist)
k Others
8.) What is your perception of your preferred male celebrity sport endorser towards the positive image of the sportswear products (Tick only one option)
a Very Satisfied
b Somewhat satisfied
c Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
d Very dissatisfied
9.) From the time a celebrity endorser was associated with your preferred sportswear brand, what advertising effects has it had on the product(s) purchase by yourself (Tick only one option)
a Much better
b Somewhat better
d About the same
e Somewhat worse
f Much Worse
10). The male celebrity sportsperson has improved your acceptance of the promoted sportswear products. (Tick only one option)
a Extremely likely
b Very likely
c Somewhat likely
d Likely with 50-50 chances
e Somewhat unlikely
f Very unlikely
g Extremely unlikely
11.) Do you prefer sportswear product endorsed by single or multiple celebrities (Tick only one option)
a Single
b Multiple
12.) How many celebrity endorsed ads do you see every day (Tick only one option)
a None
b 1-5
c 6-10
d More than 10
13.) How does the celebrity endorse match up affect your product perception (Tick only one option)
a Enables longer recall of products
b Improved your attitude towards the product
c Makes the products more attractive and trustworthy
d Makes the product more credible
14.) What is the suitability of choice of the male celebrity endorser for the sportswear product on sale (Tick only one option)
a Most suitable
b Somewhat suitable
c Least suitable
15.) What impact has the male sport celebrity had on the brand they contracted to endorse (Tick only one option)
a Strengthened the brand equity
b Neutralized the brand equity
c Weakened the brand equity
d Improved the brand physique
e Improved the brand likeability
f Improved the brand friendliness
h Improved the brand occupational features
g Improved the brand social affiliations.
16.) How has the male celebrity sport endorsement affected you brand choice
Tick only one most appropriate scale tendency.
a Pleasant -3- -2- -1- Unpleasant
b Friendly -3- -2- -1- Unfriendly
c Rejecting -1- -2- -3- Accepting
d Helpful -3- -2- -1- Frustrating
e Unenthusiastic -1- -2- -3- Enthusiastic
f Tense -1- -2- -3- Relaxed
g Distant -1- -2- -3- Close
h Cold -1- -2- -3- Warm
i Cooperative -3- -2- -1- Uncooperative
j Supportive -3- -2- -1- Hostile
k Boring -1- -2- -3- Interesting
l Quarrelsome -1- -2- -3- Harmonious
m Self Assured -3- -2- -1- Hesitant
n Efficient -3- -2- -1- Inefficient
o Gloomy -1- -2- -3- Cheerful
p Open -3- -2- -1- Guarded
17.) What importance do you attach to the image, characters and behaviour of the celebrity sports endorser towards your choice of the brands they promote (Tick only one option)
a Very important
b Somewhat important
c Least important
18.) What would you not like to see from a celebrity sport endorser attached to a brand or product (Tick only one option)
a Controversy
b Social conflict
c Lack of commitment
d Scandals
19.) What is you most common interpretation of the celebrity endorsement advertisements (Tick only one option)
a Uplifted social status
b Value addition
c Product source authenticity
d Persuasive
g Familiarity with the brands
20.) How much do you spend to purchase male celebrity endorsed sportswear in a year (Tick only one option)
a Nil
b 1- 100
c 101- 500
d 501-1,000
e 1,001-2,000
f 2,001-5,000
g Over 5,001
Appendix II
Questions for case study
What is the general understanding of sports celebrity endorsement in the marketing arena
What is the definition of celebrity, what are the characteristics of celebrities and what are the qualities that make them appeal to the consumers in the market
What is sports celebrity endorsement role in marketing of sportswear
What is the impact of using sports celebrity endorsers in the Irish sportswear market
(a)Does use of male celebrity endorsers have any positive influence to the male in Irish on their purchasing decisions
(b) Does this create a bias on the choice of sportswear brand for the men in the Irish Market
(c) Is there a relationship between sports celebrity endorsement and advertising
3. Is the choice of sportswear brand determined by the sports celebrity endorser behind the brand
(a) How does this happen, what makes one brand more credible in the market than the other
(b)What are the characteristics the consumers look for in these celebrities
4. What are the considerations used by companies in choosing sports celebrity endorsers
(a)What are the characteristics of the sports celebrity endorsers suitable for an endorsement
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